Bangladesh is generally known for its high population density (over 800 persons per square kilometre), high population growth rate (1.8 per cent per annum), endemic poverty (per capita GNP about $ 240) and high rate of adult illiteracy (58 per cent). However, in recent years some innovative programmes of basic education have been initiated in the country to tackle the overwhelming problem of illiteracy.

Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy of Bangladesh, and 80 per cent of around 120 million people live in 86,000 villages. The population is basically rural, but urbanisation is growing at the rate of 5 per cent per annum, which is almost three times the population growth rate. The main reason for the high rate of urbanisation is the shifting of the rural population to the cities in search of jobs, creating a large number of slums in urban centres.

The impact of the Jomtien World Conference on Education for All (WCEFA) held in March 1990, which promoted an expanded vision of basic education with the aim of meeting the basic learning needs of all children, youths and adults, has been felt in Bangladesh. As a result, a Compulsory Primary Education Act was passed in 1990 and, in January 1992, the government launched the Compulsory Primary Education (CPE) programme in 68 out of 460 thana s in the country. This programme has been extended nation-wide since January 1993. About the same time, in 1992, the government made rural primary education free for girls up to grade 8, and a new Primary and Mass Education Division (PMED) was created under the Prime Minister's Secretariat to strengthen the management of primary education and non-formal education programmes.

The national EFA programme was officially launched in March 1992. A project called Expansion of Integrated Non-formal Education Programme (INFEP) was also initiated; this has recently been upgraded into the Directorate of Non-formal Education. In 1993 the government launched the ‘Food and Education' programme, designed to improve enrolment and class attendance and reduce drop-outs. For qualitative improvement in the primary education sector, several new programmes have been introduced such as (a) a curriculum dissemination programme for teachers, (b) cluster and sub-cluster training programmes, (c) continuous pupil assessment, and (d) a satellite school programme.

Non-formal Education Programmes

In the 1980s a number of NGOs began to see the need for initiating programmes of basic education in support of their poverty alleviation activities. An important result of the Jomtien WCEFA has been that several NGOs have identified education as a priority sector for their areas of operation. Many of them have significantly expanded their education programmes over the last few years.

The NGOs realised that educating the whole nation would require a massive effort and close collaboration between them and the other progressive forces. Consequently, in 1990 a coalition of the mainstream NGOs having major education programmes was formed under the title ‘Gono Shakkharata Ovijan' (Campaign for Popular Education — CAMPE). The aim was to foster cooperation among the NGOs, the government and civil society in developing a mass movement encompassing both formal and non-formal programmes in order to eradicate illiteracy.

Currently more than 400 NGOs are involved in non-formal education programmes in Bangladesh. In 1994, these had more than 2.6 million enrolled in about 73,000 centres. Of those enrolled, at least 1.4 million were primary-age children (63 per cent of them girls), over 0.4 million were adolescents (65 per cent girls), and about 0.8 million were adults (80 per cent women).

In the EFA National Plan of Action, the government set the target of raising gross primary enrolment from 76 per cent in 1991 to 95 per cent by the year 2000, the completion rate from 40 per cent to 70 per cent, and the adult literacy rate from 35 per cent to 62 per cent. It is being claimed that already considerable progress has been achieved in realising these targets: gross primary enrolment has reached 92 per cent, completion rate 60 per cent and adult literacy rate 42 per cent.

Innovations in Primary Education

In view of the large number of children and adults who remain uncovered by present educational programmes, it is felt that some innovations are needed in primary education to provide quality education at low cost which would ensure high attendance and retention as well as a high rate of success. Several innovative programmes have been initiated in primary education by both governmental and non-governmental agencies to achieve these aims. Generally, the major characteristics of an innovative programme are that it should (a) be based on direct experience and practice; (b) be cost effective; (c) show easily verifiable results; (d) have interdependence within its subsystems; (e) have in-built mechanisms for measuring achievement; (f) have simple but effective management; and (g) create a strong team spirit among the members of the programme. Based on these criteria, some of the more prominent and successful innovative programmes in the field of primary education in Bangladesh are as follows:

1. BRAC Non-Formal Primary Education Programme : The Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC) has developed this programme. This caters to children 8-10 years of age who could not get admission in formal primary schools. Thus the learners are older children who never attended school. The programme covers grades 1-3.
   
2. GSS Primary Education Programme : This programme has been initiated by the Gono Shahajjo Shangstha (GSS). Children who could not get admission in formal primary schools are enrolled in these schools. The children are taught up to grade 3, which is now being extended to grade 5. Classes are generally held in brick schoolhouses built by GSS.
   
3. CMES Technology School : The Centre for Mass Education in Science (CMES), a science- and technology-oriented NGO, has initiated this programme. In grades 1-2, pupils are provided general education; in grades 4-5, some science lessons are included covering environment, popular science and technology. The aim is to make people conscious of the importance and impact of science education in real life.
   
4. Government Satellite School Programme : Under this programme, ‘feeder schools' are set up within the catchment areas of the formal primary schools so that small out-of-school children who are unable to walk a long distance can receive early education in grades 1-2. The aim is to bring school facilities near the homes of poor children, especially girls, to ensure school attendance. Teaching is done by a couple of volunteer women teachers who get a small honorarium. The schools are run entirely by the local communities.
   
5. Dhaka Ahsania Mission Alternative Primary School Programme : Children of 6-8 years are the target group. The course duration is 27 months with 3 grades, each of 9 months. The school premises are provided by the local community.
   
6. UCEP School: The Under-privileged Children's Programme School is a specialised programme designed for working children in the age group 6-14 years. The duration of this programme is 7 years. It is a mixture of general and technical education.
   
7. Terre Des Hommes (TDH) Street Children Programme: Children aged 8-10 years who work at railway stations, bus and launch terminals, etc., are the target groups of this programme. Such children are assembled for teaching under the sheds of railway stations or bus and launch terminals with the help of local authorities including the police. BRAC curriculum and materials are used.

Many of these programmes have shown that even with very limited facilities, through better design of materials, improved teaching methods, and better management and supervision, schools can be made highly attractive to children so that drop-outs and absenteeism are almost totally eliminated. The details of some of these programmes are given here.